The main causes of COPD in high-income countries are tobacco smoke and occupational exposure, but in low-income and middle-income countries use of biomass fuel (wood, dung, crop residues, and charcoal ...

The current pathophysiology of COPD encompasses three main characteristics: emphysema, chronic bronchitis and small airway disease. Macrophages and neutrophils are implicated in this process; thus ...

Authors and Disclosures. Carlos Noujeim* 1 and Pierre Bou-Khalil 2 1 Division of Pulmonary and Critical Care, Department of Internal Medicine, Tannourine Governmental Hospital, Batroun, Lebanon. 2 ...